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Various actors, including the private sector, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and communities, along with government ministries responsible for WASH, are all handling various aspects of the water supply and sanitation sector.

Also, the magnitude of the WASH challenges in formal and informal human settlements is such that no one country or institution alone can overcome the growing demand for these services.

Pollution, climate change impacts and environmental degradation of freshwater resources, combined with the huge infrastructure gap in a world of scarce financial resources, explains the multitude of state and non-state actors involved in water supply and sanitation service provision.

Stakeholder engagement fosters accountability and transparency. Water, sanitation, and hygiene initiatives are more likely to meet their objectives if the intended beneficiaries participate in a meaningful way, especially in rural areas and secondary towns.

Effective partnerships and cooperation lead to services that are more appropriate to the needs and resources of poor communities and increase public acceptance and ownership of systems.

Water supply and sanitation service provision in human settlements is affected by a plethora of governance and operational challenges. In the last decades, service providers across the globe have been turning to peer-to-peer partnerships to enhance their capacity.

These not-for-profit partnerships are referred to as water operators’ partnerships (WOPs), that rely on trust and open exchange of information and expertise.

Water operators’ partnerships connect established, well-functioning utilities with others that need assistance and improve performance, supporting further extensions. Implementing WOPs can have a ripple effect because the beneficiary, after having enhanced its capacities and acquired new competences, can go on and use this expertise to help other utilities.

Many countries are facing challenges in extending services to rural areas, where coverage of safely managed drinking water services (60%) is lower than in urban areas (86%).

At the end of 2020, the number of forcibly displaced people was estimated to be 82.4 million. Forced migration puts an increased strain on water resources and more importantly, on the local entities (utilities, communities) responsible for providing water supply and sanitation services.

Multi-stakeholder partnerships, that support national government efforts, between United Nations agencies, international organizations, NGOs and civil society are needed to respond to the complex dynamics of displaced populations and host communities.